Roeters Van Lennep, J. E. et al. Women, lipids, and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: a call to action from the European Atherosclerosis Society. Eur. Heart J. 44, 4157–4173 (2023).
Google Scholar
Hong, Y. M. Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease beginning in childhood. Korean Circ. J. 40, 1–9 (2010).
Napoli, C. et al. Fatty streak formation occurs in human fetal aortas and is greatly enhanced by maternal hypercholesterolemia. Intimal accumulation of low density lipoprotein and its oxidation precede monocyte recruitment into early atherosclerotic lesions. J. Clin. Invest 100, 2680–2690 (1997).
Google Scholar
Napoli, C. et al. Influence of maternal hypercholesterolaemia during pregnancy on progression of early atherosclerotic lesions in childhood: fate of Early Lesions in Children (FELIC) study. Lancet 354, 1234–1241 (1999).
Google Scholar
Pool, L. R. et al. Childhood risk factors and adulthood cardiovascular disease: a systematic review. J. Pediatr. 232, 118–126.e23 (2021).
Google Scholar
Jacobs, D. R. et al. Childhood cardiovascular risk factors and adult cardiovascular events. N. Engl. J. Med. 386, 1877–1888 (2022).
Google Scholar
Twisk, J. W. R., Kemper, H. C. G. & Van Mechelen, W. Tracking of activity and fitness and the relationship with cardiovascular disease risk factors. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 32, 1455–1461 (2000).
Google Scholar
Martínez-Vizcaíno, V. & Sánchez-López, M. Relationship between physical activity and physical fitness in children and adolescents. Rev. Esp. Cardiol. 61, 108–111 (2008).
Google Scholar
Nagata, J. M. et al. Physical activity from young adulthood to middle age and premature cardiovascular disease events: a 30-year population-based cohort study. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 19, 123 (2022).
Google Scholar
Michos, E. D., McEvoy, J. W. & Blumenthal, R. S. Lipid management for the prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 381, 1557–1567 (2019).
Google Scholar
Kraus, W. E. et al. Physical activity, all-cause and cardiovascular mortality, and cardiovascular disease. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 51, 1270–1281 (2019).
Google Scholar
Luo, Y. & Peng, D. Residual atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk: focus on non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. Ther. 28, (2023)
Crea, F. High-density lipoproteins, lipoprotein(a), and remnant cholesterol: new opportunities for reducing residual cardiovascular risk. Eur. Heart J. 44, 1379–1382 (2023).
Google Scholar
Varbo, A. & Nordestgaard, B. G. Remnant cholesterol and triglyceride-rich lipoproteins in atherosclerosis progression and cardiovascular disease. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 36, 2133–2135 (2016).
Google Scholar
Baratta, F. et al. Cholesterol remnants, triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and cardiovascular risk. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 24, 4268 (2023).
Delialis, D. et al. Remnant cholesterol and atherosclerotic disease in high cardiovascular risk patients. Beyond LDL cholesterol and hypolipidemic treatment. Hellenic J. Cardiol. 66, 26–31 (2022).
Google Scholar
Kondamudi, N., Mehta, A., Thangada, N. D. & Pandey, A. Physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness: vital signs for cardiovascular risk assessment. Curr. Cardiol. Rep. 23, 172 (2021).
Mozaffarian, D. et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2016 Update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 133, e38–e48 (2016).
Google Scholar
WHO. Global status report on physical activity 2022: executive summary (2022).
Casado-Robles, C., Viciana, J., Guijarro-Romero, S. & Mayorga-Vega D. Effects of consumer-wearable activity tracker-based programs on objectively measured daily physical activity and sedentary behavior among school-aged children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med. Open 8, 18 (2022).
Pozuelo-Carrascosa, D. P., García-Hermoso, A., Álvarez-Bueno, C., Sánchez-López, M. & Martinez-Vizcaino, V. Effectiveness of school-based physical activity programmes on cardiorespiratory fitness in children: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br. J. Sports Med. 52, 1234–1240 (2018).
Google Scholar
Mayorga-Vega, D., Casado-Robles, C., López-Fernández, I. & Viciana, J. A comparison of the utility of different step-indices to translate the physical activity recommendation in adolescents. J. Sports Sci. 39, 469–479 (2021).
Google Scholar
Ross, R. et al. Precision exercise medicine: understanding exercise response variability. Br. J. Sports Med. 53, 1141–1153 (2019).
Google Scholar
Rodríguez-Gutiérrez, E. et al. Steps per day and health-related quality of life in schoolchildren: the mediator role of cardiorespiratory fitness. Eur. J. Pediatr. 183, 739–748 (2024).
Paluch, A. E. et al. Prospective association of daily steps with cardiovascular disease: a harmonized meta-analysis. Circulation 147, 122–131 (2023).
Google Scholar
Banach, M. et al. The association between daily step count and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality: a meta-analysis. Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol. 18, 1975–1985 (2023).
Stens, N. A. et al. Relationship of daily step counts to all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 15, 1483–1494 (2023).
Sheng, M. et al. The relationships between step count and all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events: a dose-response meta-analysis. J. Sport Health Sci. 10, 620–628 (2021).
Google Scholar
Rodríguez-Gutiérrez, E. et al. Daily steps and all-cause mortality: an umbrella review and meta-analysis. Prev. Med. 185, 108047 (2024).
Ramírez-Vélez, R. et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness, adiposity, and cardiometabolic risk factors in schoolchildren: the FUPRECOL study. West. J. Nurs. Res. 39, 1311–1329 (2017).
Google Scholar
Sequí-Domínguez, I. et al. Association of daily steps on lipid and glycaemic profiles in children: the mediator role of cardiorespiratory fitness. Acta Paediatr. 113, 296–302 (2024).
Google Scholar
Reyes-Ferrada, W. et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness, physical activity, sedentary time and its association with the atherogenic index of plasma in Chilean adults: influence of the waist circumference to height ratio. Nutrients 12, 1250 (2020).
Google Scholar
Muscella, A., Stefàno, E. & Marsigliante, S. The effects of exercise training on lipid metabolism and coronary heart disease. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 319, H76–H88 (2020).
Google Scholar
Packard, C. J. Remnants, LDL, and the quantification of lipoprotein-associated risk in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Curr. Atheroscler. Rep. 24, 133–142 (2022).
Google Scholar
World Medical Association. World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA 310, 2191–2194 (2013).
Casado-Robles, C., Mayorga-Vega, D., Guijarro-Romero, S. & Viciana, J. Validity of the Xiaomi Mi Band 2, 3, 4 and 5 wristbands for assessing physical activity in 12-to-18-year-old adolescents under unstructured free-living conditions. fit-person study. J. Sports Sci. Med. 22, 196 (2023).
Google Scholar
Sajja, A. et al. Discordance between standard equations for determination of LDL cholesterol in patients with atherosclerosis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 79, 530–541 (2022).
Google Scholar
Martin, S. S. et al. Comparison of a novel method vs the Friedewald equation for estimating low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels from the standard lipid profile. JAMA 310, 2061–2068 (2013).
Google Scholar
Léger, L., Lambert, J., Goulet, A., Rowan, C. & Dinelle, Y. Aerobic capacity of 6 to 17-year-old Quebecois-20 meter shuttle run test with 1 min stages. Can. J. Appl. Sport Sci. 9, 64–69 (1984).
Google Scholar
Léger, L. A., Mercier, D., Gadoury, C. & Lambert, J. The multistage 20 metre shuttle run test for aerobic fitness. J. Sports Sci. 6, 93–101 (1988).
Google Scholar
José de Menezes, F., Correa de Jesus, Í. & Leite, N. Predictive equations of maximum oxygen consumption by shuttle run test in children and adolescents: a systematic review. Rev. Paul. de. Pediatr. 37, 241 (2019).
Google Scholar
Textor, J., van der Zander, B., Gilthorpe, M. S., Liśkiewicz, M. & Ellison, G. T. Robust causal inference using directed acyclic graphs: the R package “dagitty. Int. J. Epidemiol. 45, 1887–1894 (2016).
Google Scholar
Bolin, J. H. & Hayes, A. F. Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: a regression-based approach. New York, NY: The Guilford Press. J. Educ. Meas. 51, 335–337 (2014).
Google Scholar
Hayes A. F. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: a Regression-based Approach. 2nd edn (New York: The Guilford Press, 2018).
Sterne, J. A. C. et al. Multiple imputation for missing data in epidemiological and clinical research: potential and pitfalls. BMJ 338, 157–160 (2009).
Google Scholar
Di Costanzo, A. et al. Elevated serum concentrations of remnant cholesterol associate with increased carotid intima-media thickness in children and adolescents. J. Pediatr. 232, 133–139.e1 (2021).
Google Scholar
Navarese, E. P. et al. Independent causal effect of remnant cholesterol on atherosclerotic cardiovascular outcomes: a mendelian randomization study. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 43, e373–e380 (2023).
Google Scholar
Hauser, C. et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness and development of childhood cardiovascular risk: the EXAMIN YOUTH follow-up study. Front. Physiol. 14, 1243434 (2023).
Diaz, E. C. et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness associates with blood pressure and metabolic health of children-the Arkansas active kids study. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 53, 2225–2232 (2021).
Google Scholar
Isath, A. et al. Exercise and cardiovascular health: a state-of-the-art review. Prog. Cardiovasc. Dis. 79, 44–52 (2023).
Google Scholar
Tucker, W. J. et al. Exercise for primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease: JACC focus seminar 1/4. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 80, 1091–1106 (2022).
Google Scholar
Bonikowske, A. R. et al. Evaluating current assessment techniques of cardiorespiratory fitness. Expert Rev. Cardiovasc. Ther. 22, 231–241 (2024).
Google Scholar
Goodman, E., Dolan, L. M., Morrison, J. A. & Daniels, S. R. Factor analysis of clustered cardiovascular risks in adolescence: obesity is the predominant correlate of risk among youth. Circulation 111, 1970–1977 (2005).
Google Scholar
Wei, D. et al. Lipoprotein profiles of fat distribution and its association with insulin sensitivity. Front Endocrinol. 13, 978745 (2022).
Google Scholar
Koskinas, K. C. et al. Obesity and cardiovascular disease: an ESC clinical consensus statement. Eur. Heart J. 45, 4063–4098 (2024).
Perez-Bey, A. et al. Bidirectional associations between fitness and fatness in youth: a longitudinal study. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 30, 1483–1496 (2020).
Google Scholar
Lavie, C. J., Neeland, I. J. & Ortega, F. B. Intervention in school-aged children to prevent progression of obesity and cardiometabolic disease: a paradigm shift indeed. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 84, 509–511 (2024).
Google Scholar
Santos-Beneit, G. et al. Effect of time-varying exposure to school-based health promotion on adiposity in childhood. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 84, 499–508 (2024).
Google Scholar
Maffeis, C. Physical activity in the prevention and treatment of childhood obesity: physio-pathologic evidence and promising experiences. Int. J. Pediatr. Obes. 3, 29–32 (2008).
Google Scholar
Aadland, E., Kvalheim, O. M., Anderssen, S. A., Resaland, G. K. & Andersen L. B. The multivariate physical activity signature associated with metabolic health in children. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 15, 106266 (2018).
Haapala, E. A. et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness, physical activity, and insulin resistance in children. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 52, 1144–1152 (2020).
Google Scholar
Haapala, E. A. et al. Associations of physical activity, sedentary time, and diet quality with biomarkers of inflammation in children. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 22, 906–915 (2022).
Google Scholar
González-Gil, E. M. et al. Improving cardiorespiratory fitness protects against inflammation in children: the IDEFICS study. Pediatr. Res. 91, 681–689 (2022).
Google Scholar
Chung, S. T. et al. The relationship between lipoproteins and insulin sensitivity in youth with obesity and abnormal glucose tolerance. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 107, 1541–1551 (2022).
Google Scholar
Montes-de-Oca-García, A. et al. Maximal fat oxidation capacity is associated with cardiometabolic risk factors in healthy young adults. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 21, 907–917 (2021).
Google Scholar
Varbo, A., Benn, M., Tybjærg-Hansen, A. & Nordestgaard, B. G. Elevated remnant cholesterol causes both low-grade inflammation and ischemic heart disease, whereas elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol causes ischemic heart disease without inflammation. Circulation 128, 1298–1309 (2013).
Google Scholar
Cesa, C. C. et al. Physical activity and cardiovascular risk factors in children: meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Prev. Med. 69, 54–62 (2014).
Google Scholar
Nordestgaard, B. G. & Varbo, A. Triglycerides and cardiovascular disease. Lancet 384, 626–635 (2014).
Google Scholar
link
